Chlorine is a widely used water disinfectant, while fluoride is an element which is naturally found in water or artificially added to it. Many regulations have been set to monitor the quality of water and ensure its safety. Chlorine and fluoride have many toxic effects if their levels exceeded the allowed levels. This work aimed estimation of levels of chlorine and fluoride in drinking water of Benha city and study their chronic toxic effects on adult male albino rats. Method: collecting water samples from urban areas, rural areas and bottled water then estimate levels of chlorine and fluoride. Seventy adult male albino rats were divided as follows: control group (10 rats), chlorine groups (30 rats which have been subdivided into three groups received different doses of chlorine for eight weeks). Fluoride groups (30 rats which have been subdivided into three groups received different doses of fluoride for eight weeks). The results of present study revealed the followings: Chlorine levels in urban area were above the allowed recommended levels, while its levels in rural areas were within the allowed level .Fluoride levels in urban areas, rural areas and bottled water were below the recommended doses. A decrease in body weight in all treated group have been observed; histopathological changes in (liver, kidney, urinary bladder and large intestine) have been observed and these changes were dose dependent. We recommended adjusting level of chlorine in both rural and urban areas to follow the world health organization recommended levels. Fluoridation programs also should be applied in Benha to cover up the low level in water

Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine belong to the quinolone family. They are related drugs with different therapeutic and toxic doses with similar clinical indications for use. Initially, chloroquine was given for malaria prophylaxis and treatment, and later it is used by rheumatologists for treating rheumatoid arthritis, systemic/discoid lupus erythematosus, and other connective tissue disorders. Hydroxychloroquine has replaced chloroquine since it is far less toxic, except for individuals who travel in areas endemic with malaria Expanded use of these drugs for nonmalarial disease entities has resulted in prolonged duration of therapy and higher daily dosages leading to cumulative doses greater than those used in antimalarial therapy Prevalence rate of autoimmune disesases in Egypt is 0.2 cases per 100 inhibitants. Chloroquine toxicity is thought to be due to the formation of some oxidative metabolites, which raises the production of reactive oxygen species Possible mechanisms of testicular toxicity of chloroquine are interference with several enzymatic activities like glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity, alteration in phospholipids compositions of microsoms, mitochondrial NADH, succinate dehydrogenase and cytochrome C oxidase Many histolpathological changes in testis were detected in chloroquine phosphate poisoning e.g shrunken Seminiferous tubules, degeneration of the interstitial tissues, loss of interstitial cells of leydig , degeneration of sertoli cells and degeneration of spermatocytes and spermatids, Chloroquine can cause reductions in sperm motility and viability, increase in the number of abnormal spermatozoa and reduction in the weight of the testes Hydroxychloroquine is found to be less toxic than chloroquine, while there are no reports of adverse effects of hydroxychloroquine on male fertility

Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine belong to the quinolone family. They are related drugs with different therapeutic and toxic doses with similar clinical indications for use. Initially, chloroquine was given for malaria prophylaxis and treatment, and later it is used by rheumatologists for treating rheumatoid arthritis, systemic/discoid lupus erythematosus, and other connective tissue disorders. Hydroxychloroquine has replaced chloroquine since it is far less toxic, except for individuals who travel in areas endemic with malaria Expanded use of these drugs for nonmalarial disease entities has resulted in prolonged duration of therapy and higher daily dosages leading to cumulative doses greater than those used in antimalarial therapy Prevalence rate of autoimmune disesases in Egypt is 0.2 cases per 100 inhibitants. Chloroquine toxicity is thought to be due to the formation of some oxidative metabolites, which raises the production of reactive oxygen species Possible mechanisms of testicular toxicity of chloroquine are interference with several enzymatic activities like glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity, alteration in phospholipids compositions of microsoms, mitochondrial NADH, succinate dehydrogenase and cytochrome C oxidase Many histolpathological changes in testis were detected in chloroquine phosphate poisoning e.g shrunken Seminiferous tubules, degeneration of the interstitial tissues, loss of interstitial cells of leydig , degeneration of sertoli cells and degeneration of spermatocytes and spermatids, Chloroquine can cause reductions in sperm motility and viability, increase in the number of abnormal spermatozoa and reduction in the weight of the testes Hydroxychloroquine is found to be less toxic than chloroquine, while there are no reports of adverse effects of hydroxychloroquine on male fertility